Factors Affecting Academic Achievement in Secondary Schools: A Critical Review of School Environment and Self-Confidence

Abstract

Academic achievement in secondary schools is influenced by multiple interlocking factors. Among the most proximal are the school environment, including climate, instructional quality, physical environment, leadership, and resource provision, and student self-confidence, academic self-efficacy, self-concept, and related motivational beliefs. Drawing on empirical and meta-analytic studies from 2015 to 2025, this review examines how school environment and self-confidence individually and jointly influence secondary school academic achievement, what mediators and moderators exist, and what gaps remain. Recent findings show that positive school climate and leadership have moderate effects on student performance (Daily et al., 2019; Özdoğru, Sarier & Korucuoğlu, 2025); similarly, academic self-efficacy and values predict achievement and persistence over time, especially in longitudinal designs (Honicke & Broadbent, 2016). Evidence suggests reciprocal influences: achievement fosters self-confidence, and self-confidence aids in overcoming negative environmental effects. Key limitations include inconsistent measures, lack of causal designs, and underrepresentation of low- and middle-income settings. Interventions that combine environmental improvements with boosting self-beliefs seem especially promising (Acosta-Gonzaga et al., 2023). Policy recommendations emphasize whole-school strategies, teacher development, domain-specific confidence building, and attention to equity and context.